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Guidance on how to crack market sizing questions, a common ask in consulting and other similar companies When a market sizing is used A market sizing is the process of estimating the potential size of a market, often in terms of units, revenue or sales. They require you to make assumptions and perform rough calculations in order to estimate the size of a particular market with no data available. They are designed to test mainly your problem-solving and quantitative reasoning. How would you make your best guess if you didn´t have any data or the internet? When you are a consultant, you often need to estimate addressable market sizes or financial impact for your client without having all the pieces. Examples of market sizing include: "How many trips do Uber drivers make weekly in New York City?" "What's the market size for residential heaters in the country?" Market sizing exercises are often used in two situations: SITUATION #1 : They are typically asked at the beginning of consulting case interviews, after the framework section. Rather than providing you with a piece of information, they ask you to estimate it yourself. In this case, the exercise should not take more than 3-6 minutes. SITUATION #2 : They may be asked by some consulting companies (not MBBs) as the main quantitative test rather than asking you for a full business case. A market sizing here may take 15-30 min (vs a full standard business case (45-60 min). How to solve it: Step by Step The interviewer will often directly ask you a question like: " What's the market size for takeaway coffee in New York? " After clarifying any questions you may have, you will be expected to structure your approach, mapping out your assumptions, and performing the calculations. The high-level structure for both SITUATION #1 and SITUATION #2 is similar; the main difference is the level of sophistication/ depth required to get to the solution. SITUATION #1  (Part of a case interview) Since you only have a few minutes, it´s important that you find simple calculation steps and make simplistic assumptions. For example, for the number of coffees per person, you may just take as reference the number that you drink. Goal: Use a very high-level approach and simple calculations. Approach : Population x % adult x # coffees/ week x  # weeks Assumptions : 300 million population, 60% adults, 5 coffees/ week, 52 weeks Calculation : 300 x 60% x 5 x 52 SITUATION #2  (the main quantitative test) You are given more time, and therefore, there is an expectation that your assumptions will be more sophisticates. Goal: Use a high level approach and develop the calculations. Approach:  Adult population x % drink coffee x # coffees/ week x  # weeks Assumptions : Assumption Category Derivation / Justification Estimated Figure Adult Population Assumed 80-year life expectancy and an even distribution. Drinking age is 15-70 years. (300M / 80 years =  3.75M people/year). (70 - 15) x 3.75M = 206 million adults 220 million % Drinking Takeaway Coffee Exclude 10% (dislike taste, medical issues). Exclude 30% (low socio-economic level, as takeaway is expensive). 220 x (1 - 0.10) x (1 - 0.30) 138 million Weekly Consumption Segmentation (Based on the 138M drinkers): Heavy Drinkers (20%) Assume 2 takeaway coffees/day = 14/week. $138 x 0.20 x 14 Medium Drinkers (60%) Assume 1 takeaway coffee/day = 7/week. $138 x 0.60 x 7$ Sporadic Drinkers (20%) Assume 2 takeaways/week. $138 x 0.20 x 2$   Both cases are examples of top-down estimations, where you take a large number and you refine and break it down until you arrive at a final estimation. An alternative, perhaps less used but useful in case you don´t know the large number (e.g. total population), is to start with a small number and then build up and increase the number (e.g. starting with the coffee a single person drinks and building up from the figure). This is called bottom-up estimation. Here  you can read an example of top-down vs bottom-up related to the volume of toothbrushes in the US. How to practice Below are some steps that help you get started when you have no experience in market sizing.   Understand the format:  Read through a few market sizing question and their answers to understand the expected structure and the typical approach to solving these types of problems.     Focus on fundamentals:  Begin working through several practice cases, initially disregarding the time it takes you to get to a solution. Focus on: (1) Structuring well (2) Practicing making and justifying assumptions (this is especially relevant for #SITUATION  2 ) (3) Sharpening your mathematical skills Transition to mock cases: Once you feel comfortable with the practice, begin practicing mock cases (speak your answers aloud and take time constraints into consideration). Maths he math involved in market sizing exercises is simpler compared to full business cases.   Here are some tips to consider: Know basic socio-demographic numbers such as the total population, life expectancy of the country where you are interviewing and main cities, as well as key figures for   major global markets  (such as the US, China, and the largest economies  worldwide). Use simple segmentation,  such as heavy/medium/sporadic users or high/medium/low-income people. Simplify age assumptions: For age-based calculations , always use an easily manageable number for life expectancy (e.g., 70 or 80). In developed countries,  you can often assume a relatively rectangular population pyramid (meaning a similar percentage of people at each age, from 1 year old up to the life expectancy). For developing countries, you can assign a higher percentage to younger ages (for example, assuming 50% of the population is below 30 and 50% is above). For replacement demand -   when estimating a market for a product that is replaced, such as an iPhone, use the  product's average lifetime . For example, if there are about 300 million smartphones in the US (roughly 1 per person) and smartphones are typically replaced every ~3 years, then that means ~100 million smartphones are replaced annually. Understand key concepts : Total Market:  The total size assuming a company has  100% market share Addressable Market:  The market that we can realistically sell to with our  current capabilities Market Share:  The % of the market that is currently held by the company  (or client) Document and Simplify: Always notate the  units (e.g., k, M, B) for large numbers. Be sure to  round up large numbers  to simplify calculations. Here are some websites that give you free tips on how to be improve your math skills: Math Drills | Fast Math Case Prep Market sizing: the ultimate guide (inc framework and cheat sheet) - IGotAnOffer 10 steps to solving any sizing question | Management Consulted Mistakes to avoid When connecting with the interviewer: Maintain eye contact . Consulting is not only about solving problems; it is about connecting with your client (or interviewer) Don´t (wrongly) assume  that being professional equals being serious. You need to connect with the interviewer, and a smile can help. Also, try to project enthusiasm with for the case. If you just seem to suffer, they won´t be excited about working with you down the road Don´t be unprepared  - always have your paper, a pencil, and a calculator ready (if needed) Don´t ask the interviewer  if you are on track or if your approach is correct. Assume it´s correct and keep going; you need to look confident. Don´t believe the interviewer just wants  to hear the final magic number. They want to know how you think and the process by which you get to the answer. Involve them in your thinking! Don´t use generic terms  when discussing the structure. You need to show that you understand the client and the market. For example: in a medical context, the term  "treatment"  is better than product,  "patient" is better than client, and " hospital"  is better than shop, etc. To get the problem right: Don´t hold back important clarifying questions  for fear of sounding uninformed. You need to know the basics to get to the bottom of the problem (e.g. How do you define "trips"? Does it include only trips with passengers or also food delivery rides? ) Don´t forget the core sizing question.  Make sure you keep it in mind or revise your notes if needed. Never ask the interviewer what the question was! When you get to a number, don´t assume it´s correct . Take a second to think if it makes sense in a real-word context. If you make a mistake, don´t panic.  You can say " I think I may have made a mistake. Let me quickly review my math to make sure I got it right ". What matters is that you realize the error quickly. Networking Preparing for market sizing qu estions is much more straightforward than for business cases, so the personal connection with an interviewer may be less key here. Still, it is useful to know people with experience in consulting to practice a few mock market sizing cases. Finding practise partners Consulting contacts:  If you know someone  who works at a consulting firm, ask for a favor: 25-30 minutes to run through one or two mock cases (when you already feel you are 99% ready). Self-study options:  If you don´t know anyone, it is perfectly fine. There is  plenty of reading material (see relevant links below) Practice:  Finally, and more importantly, find people to do mock practice with - either current consultants or other candidates who are in the same process as you. If you don´t know any consultant: Leverage LinkedIn: Reach out to people who have a similar position to the one you are applying to - even if you don't know them (read  here for more detail). If you want to find other applicants to practice with: Online platforms: Find candidates in platforms and forums to practice with . Although the majority may be practicing business cases, they can still help you with your market sizing practice Mock session setup: Typically, you agree on having a videoconference and doing two mock cases. First, one person acts as the interviewer, and then that same person becomes the candidate. This format closely resembles a real interview Practice level: This is recommended when you have already done some mock cases while keeping track of the time. Also, try to choose a partner who is at the same level of practice (e.g. +10 mock cases). Get diverse feedback: Practice with one more than one partner, so you get different feedback Add value:   Prepare a case to give to your partner, so your feedback is better, and you add value to him/her Where to find? Groups dedicated to consulting prep in LinkedIn, Facebook or similar platform Platform Type Example Resources/Groups How They Help You Find Partners Dedicated Case Prep Communities PrepLounge:  A major platform designed specifically for consulting prep. Offers a "Meeting Board"  feature to schedule mock interviews with peers worldwide, filterable by experience level and language. CaseCoach / MyConsultingCoach:  Offer structured toolkits, but also often have Practice Rooms  or Partner Search  sections for candidates. MyConsultingCoach  has a partner browse feature, sorting by reliability and experience. CaseCoach  offers unlimited mock interviews with other top candidates in their Practice Room. Professional/Social Networks LinkedIn/Facebook Groups:  Look for groups using terms like "MBB Case Prep," "Management Consulting Interview Practice," or "Consulting Case Partners." These groups facilitate direct outreach. Candidates post their availability, target firms, and experience level to find similar partners. Reddit Communities (e.g., r/managementconsulting): Candidates frequently post threads asking to connect with others who are currently preparing for interviews. AI/Self-Study Tools CasewithAI, RocketBlocks, CaseStudyPrep.ai :  (Not for peer practice, but valuable if you can't find a live partner.) Offer AI-powered simulations, drills, and structured feedback on market sizing, math, and structuring, serving as a substitute for human practice. University Consulting Clubs Harvard GSAS Consulting Club (or similar clubs at your alma mater). Often manage Case Practice Sign-Up Sheets  or offer Partner Matching  for current students/alumni based on experience and availability. Where to find? Groups dedicated to consulting prep on LinkedIn, Facebook or similar (1) Case Interview Partners | Groups | LinkedIn Interview Partner: Candidate Listing | PrepLounge.com < Click here  to go back to " Tech companies " Menu>

Guidance on how to crack market sizing questions, a common ask in consulting and other similar companies. Incudes pro tips and common mistakes to avoid When a market sizing A market sizing is the process of estimating the potential size of a market, often in terms of units, revenue or sales. This process requires you to make assumptions and perform rough calculations to estimate the market´s size with limited or no data available. Market sizing exercises are designed to test mainly the problem-solving and quantitative reasoning. They simulate a consultant’s real-world challenge: How would you make your best estimate if you didn't have access to existing data or the internet? As a consultant, you often need to estimate addressable market sizes or financial impact for your client without having all the necessary pieces of data. Examples of market sizing include: "How many trips do Uber drivers make weekly in New York City?" "What's the market size for residential heaters in the country?" Market sizing exercises are often used in two situations: SITUATION #1: Part of a case interview (3–6 minutes) They are typically asked at the beginning of consulting case interviews, after the framework section. Rather than providing you with the necessary piece of information, the interviewer asks you to estimate it yourself. SITUATION #2:  The main quantitative test (13–30 minutes) They may be asked by some consulting companies (often non- MBB firms) as the main quantitative test, replacing a full standard business case. A market sizing may take 15 to 30 minutes. You should investigate the most appropriate time limit for the firm you are targeting, so you can anticipate the level of depth needed to solve the exercise. Solve it: Step by Step The interviewer will often directly ask you a question like: " What's the market size for takeaway coffee in New York? " After clarifying any questions you may have, you will be expected to structure your approach, mapping out your assumptions, and performing the calculations. The high-level structure for both SITUATION #1 and SITUATION #2 is similar; the main difference is the level of sophistication/ depth required to get to the solution. SITUATION #1 (Part of a case interview) Since you only have a few minutes, it´s important that you find simple calculation steps and make simplistic assumptions. For example, for the number of coffees per person, you may just take as reference the number that you drink. Goal: Use a very high-level approach and simple calculations. Approach : Population x % adult x # coffees/ week x  # weeks Assumptions : 300 million population, 60% adults, 5 coffees/ week, 52 weeks Calculation : 300 x 60% x 5 x 52 SITUATION #2 (the main quantitative test) You are given more time, and therefore, there is an expectation that your assumptions will be more sophisticates. Goal: Use a high level approach and develop the calculations. Approach: Adult population x % drink coffee x # coffees/ week x  # weeks Assumptions : Assumption Category Derivation / Justification Estimated Figure Adult Population Assumed 80-year life expectancy and an even distribution. Drinking age is 15-70 years. (300M / 80 years =  3.75M people/year). (70 - 15) x 3.75M = 206 million adults 220 million % Drinking Takeaway Coffee Exclude 10% (dislike taste, medical issues). Exclude 30% (low socio-economic level, as takeaway is expensive). 220 x (1 - 0.10) x (1 - 0.30) 138 million Weekly Consumption Segmentation (Based on the 138M drinkers): Heavy Drinkers (20%) Assume 2 takeaway coffees/day = 14/week. $138 x 0.20 x 14 Medium Drinkers (60%) Assume 1 takeaway coffee/day = 7/week. $138 x 0.60 x 7$ Sporadic Drinkers (20%) Assume 2 takeaways/week. $138 x 0.20 x 2$ Both cases are examples of top-down estimations, where you take a large number and you refine and break it down until you arrive at a final estimation. An alternative, perhaps less used but useful in case you don´t know the large number (e.g. total population), is to start with a small number and then build up and increase the number (e.g. starting with the coffee a single person drinks and building up from the figure). This is called bottom-up estimation. Here you can read an example of top-down vs bottom-up related to the volume of toothbrushes in the US. How to practice Below are some steps that help you get started when you have no experience in market sizing. Understand the format: Read through a few market sizing question and their answers to understand the expected structure and the typical approach to solving these types of problems. Focus on fundamentals: Begin working through several practice cases, initially disregarding the time it takes you to get to a solution. Focus on: (1) Structuring well (2) Practicing making and justifying assumptions (this is especially relevant for #SITUATION 2 ) (3) Sharpening your mathematical skills Transition to mock cases: Once you feel comfortable with the practice, begin practicing mock cases (speak your answers aloud and take time constraints into consideration). Maths The math involved in market sizing exercises are simpler comparted to full business cases. Here are some tips to consider: Know basic socio-demographic numbers such as the total population, life expectancy of the country where you are interviewing and main cities, as well as key figures for   major global markets  (such as the US, China, and the largest economies  worldwide). Use simple segmentation, such as heavy/medium/sporadic users or high/medium/low-income people. Simplify age assumptions: For age-based calculations , always use an easily manageable number for life expectancy (e.g., 70 or 80). In developed countries, you can often assume a relatively rectangular population pyramid (meaning a similar percentage of people at each age, from 1 year old up to the life expectancy). For developing countries, you can assign a higher percentage to younger ages (for example, assuming 50% of the population is below 30 and 50% is above). For replacement demand - when estimating a market for a product that is replaced, such as an iPhone, use the product's average lifetime . For example, if there are about 300 million smartphones in the US (roughly 1 per person) and smartphones are typically replaced every ~3 years, then that means ~100 million smartphones are replaced annually. Understand key concepts : Total Market:  The total size assuming a company has  100% market share Addressable Market:  The market that we can realistically sell to with our  current capabilities Market Share:  The % of the market that is currently held by the company  (or client) Document and Simplify: Always notate the units (e.g., k, M, B) for large numbers. Be sure to  round up large numbers to simplify calculations. Here are some websites that give you free tips on how to be improve your math skills: Math Drills | Fast Math Case Prep Market sizing: the ultimate guide (inc framework and cheat sheet) - IGotAnOffer 10 steps to solving any sizing question | Management Consulted Errors to avoid When connecting with the interviewer Maintain eye contact . Consulting is not only about solving problems; it is about connecting with your client (or interviewer) Do not (wrongly) assume that being professional equals being serious. You need to connect with the interviewer, and a smile can help. Also, try to project enthusiasm with for the case. If you just seem to suffer, they won´t be excited about working with you down the road Do not be unprepared - always have your paper, a pencil, and a calculator ready Do not ask the interviewer  if you are on track or if your approach is correct. Assume it´s correct and keep going; you need to look confident. Do not believe the interviewer just wants  to hear the final magic number. They want to know how you think and the process by which you get to the answer. Involve them in your thinking! Do not use generic terms  when discussing the structure. You need to show that you understand the client and the market. For example: in a medical context, the term  "treatment"  is better than product,  "patient" is better than client, and " hospital"  is better than shop, etc. To get the problem right: Do not hold back important clarifying questions for fear of sounding uninformed. You need to know the basics to get to the bottom of the problem (e.g. How do you define "trips"? Does it include only trips with passengers or also food delivery rides? ) Do not forget the core sizing question. Make sure you keep it in mind or revise your notes if needed. Never ask the interviewer what the question was! When you get to a number, do not assume it is correct . Take a second to think if it makes sense in a real-word context. If you make a mistake, do not panic. You can say "I think I may have made a mistake. Let me quickly review my math to make sure I got it right". What matters is that you realize the error fast. Networking Preparing for market sizing qu estions is much more straightforward than for business cases, so the personal connection with an interviewer may be less key here. Still, it is useful to know people with experience in consulting to practice a few mock market sizing cases. Finding practise partners Consulting contacts: If you know someone  who works at a consulting firm, ask for a favor: 25-30 minutes to run through one or two mock cases (when you already feel you are 99% ready). Self-study options: If you don´t know anyone, it is perfectly fine. There is  plenty of reading material (see relevant links below) Practice: Finally, and more importantly, find people to do mock practice with - either current consultants or other candidates who are in the same process as you. If you don´t know any consultant: Leverage LinkedIn: Reach out to people who have a similar position to the one you are applying to - even if you don't know them (read here for more detail). If you want to find other applicants to practice with: Online platforms: Find candidates in platforms and forums to practice with . Although the majority may be practicing business cases, they can still help you with your market sizing practice Mock session setup: Typically, you agree on having a videoconference and doing two mock cases. First, one person acts as the interviewer, and then that same person becomes the candidate. This format closely resembles a real interview Practice level: This is recommended when you have already done some mock cases while keeping track of the time. Also, try to choose a partner who is at the same level of practice (e.g. +10 mock cases). Get diverse feedback: Practice with one more than one partner, so you get different feedback Add value: Prepare a case to give to your partner, so your feedback is better, and you add value to him/her Where to find? Groups dedicated to consulting prep on LinkedIn, Facebook or other similar platforms Platform Type Example Resources/Groups How They Help You Find Partners Dedicated Case Prep Communities PrepLounge:  A major platform designed specifically for consulting prep. Offers a "Meeting Board"  feature to schedule mock interviews with peers worldwide, filterable by experience level and language. CaseCoach / MyConsultingCoach:  Offer structured toolkits, but also often have Practice Rooms  or Partner Search  sections for candidates. MyConsultingCoach  has a partner browse feature, sorting by reliability and experience. CaseCoach  offers unlimited mock interviews with other top candidates in their Practice Room. Professional/Social Networks LinkedIn/Facebook Groups:  Look for groups using terms like "MBB Case Prep," "Management Consulting Interview Practice," or "Consulting Case Partners." These groups facilitate direct outreach. Candidates post their availability, target firms, and experience level to find similar partners. Reddit Communities (e.g., r/managementconsulting): Candidates frequently post threads asking to connect with others who are currently preparing for interviews. AI/Self-Study Tools CasewithAI, RocketBlocks, CaseStudyPrep.ai :  (Not for peer practice, but valuable if you can't find a live partner.) Offer AI-powered simulations, drills, and structured feedback on market sizing, math, and structuring, serving as a substitute for human practice. University Consulting Clubs Harvard GSAS Consulting Club (or similar clubs at your alma mater). Often manage Case Practice Sign-Up Sheets  or offer Partner Matching  for current students/alumni based on experience and availability. < Click here  to go back to " Consulting " Menu>

Step-by-step preparation to guide you through the entire business case process. Includes frameworks, examples, common mistakes, and free materials. Why a business case You are given a business case interview to assess your problem-solving, analytical, and communication skills in a real business context. They simulate the challenges consultants face with by presenting a business scenario and asking you to develop a solution. It is an exercise done in real time, most likely in the recruiter's office, sitting next to the interviewer. This is useful to test your abilities and potential to do client-facing roles under pressure. Below are some mock business case interviews for you to get a sense of what to expect. In the sections below we guide you through step by step. Structure of the business case The business case usually takes 40 to 60 minutes, depending on the consulting company. They will read a general statement like: "Our client is a manufacturer of casts and supports used in correcting bone structure. They recently developed three new baby helmets and would like to know if they should launch one or more of these products onto the market. Specifically, is a target profit of $1 million a year reasonable?" After clarifying any questions you may have, you will be expected to develop and discuss a framework designed to solve this problem. Next, you will start gathering information and data from the interviewer. You will take some time to structure the inputs and develop a response. After that, you will walk the interviewer through the process while you make the necessary calculations. You may also be asked a quantitative question to prompt brainstorming (e.g. " How could our client increase the revenue per helmet?" ). Finally, you will summarize your conclusions for the client. Duration Phase/Step Key Action Goal & Output 3–5 min Part 1: Understanding the Problem Ask Clarifying Questions  (max 3–4) and recap  the problem statement in your own words. Ensure full alignment  on the client's goal (e.g., maximize profit) and key context. 10 min Part 2: Structuring Your Analyses (Framework) Ask for Time  (1–2 min silence), then walk the interviewer through  your MECE  (Mutually Exclusive, Collectively Exhaustive) structure. Develop a logical, customized roadmap for solving the client's problem. 5 min Step 3: Gathering Data Ask for Specific Data  (Macro and Internal) by strictly following the structure you just laid out. Gather necessary quantitative and qualitative inputs  to perform the analysis. 20 min Step 4: Addressing the Quantitative Problem Structure your math approach  (high-level), then walk through calculations   aloud, checking assumptions and initial results. Solve the core numerical problem and derive a data-backed initial answer. 5–8 min Step 5: Brainstorming (Qualitative) Ask for time  (1 min silence), then structure  your ideas into 1–2 logical layers (e.g., "Increase Sales" / "Increase Client Base"). Demonstrate creativity  and structured problem-solving  for non-numerical twists. 3–5 min Step 6: Giving a final recommendation Ask for time  (a few seconds), then synthesize  the answer. Deliver a straightforward answer , backed by data, plus considerations   and next steps . You probably have many questions - that´s fine. In the sections below, we provide specific guidance for each of these steps. How to prepare Below are a few steps that will help you get started when you have no experience with business cases. If you already have experience, you may want to skip this section and go directly to the mock practice. Start by scanning key consulting websites to understand the dynamics of the case and expectations. Review a couple of videos to get a sense of what happens during the case (you can find these below, in the "Relevant materials" section). Don´t jump directly into practice. Read through a few business cases to understand how you are expected to structure and answer the questions. Start going through a few cases without taking into account the time it takes you to resolve the questions. Focus on: (1) Structuring the framework (2) Structuring the approach to the quantitative question (the math section) (3) Practicing math Once you feel comfortable with the practice, start doing mock cases (giving the answer aloud and taking time into consideration). Once you feel comfortable with the mock cases, find a partner to practice and get feedback to refine your answers (read the "Net work" section be low) Step-by-step This is a very detailed description of what happens during a business case. It is written in a way that answers many questions you may have. Step 1: Understanding the problem (3-5 min) Recruiter:  "Our client is a manufacturer of medical devices used to treat apoplexy. They recently launched a new device with two components—an injector and a disposable cartridge. They would like to know how they should sell these products to maximize profit. What should they do?" (Statement) Listen carefully and take notes This statement is the most important piece of information - what your client wants. Make sure you remember this throughout the case (sometimes people forget when they focus on the math) Do a brief recap in your own words of the problem statement to ensure you understood well Take a moment to think if there are any key high-level initial questions (max 2-3) you want to clarify to have a better sense of the client before moving forward. E.g. " Apart from maximizing profit, do they have any other key goal?" , "Where is this company located?", "Is this device new in the market?" If you do not understand a concept in the statement, ask for clarification . It is difficult to solve a problem if you do not understand what the client does E.g. Y ou mention the medicine is for apoplexy. Can you explain what this means? ) Step 2: Addressing the statement (framework) (10 min) After understanding the basics of the problem (section above), do not expect the interviewer to ask you anything else; it is your turn to talk. Ask if you can take a minute to structure your thoughts (do not take this for granted and avoid using the word "framework"). Say "thanks" and then draw the structure of your framework in silence (1-2 min) When you have it (read "Deep dive: framework" below), walk the interviewer through it , explaining how you would approach the process of solving the client´s problem (5 -8 min). It´s important that it follows a logical order (first, second, ...) and that it has a clear structure (competitors -> clients -> ...). E.g. First, I would like to understand what is happening in the market, since this is important to set the right pricing. Are there many competitors and alternative treatments or we have the only one? Also, what is the current market size of our client? Do they need our treatment to survive or just to reduce pain? That affects the willingness to pay. Second , I would look into the manufacturer's financial information to understand the costs (....). Finally, I would do a risk assessment of (...) Avoid using generic words . If your client is a medical manufacturer, use the term patient instead of "client" when referring to the end-user. Step 3: Getting more inputs (5 min) Once you are done addressing the statement (framework), don´t wait for the recruiter to say anything. Go ahead and ask for data following the framework steps you just developed. Make sure you follow an order (sample below). If the recruiter has this information, they will give it to you. So, first, I want to know the competitive forces. Do you have information about the number of competitors and market share? Do you have data about the number of patients suffering from this condition, and which % would be willing to pay for a treatment? Do you have information about how much they are willing to pay? Do you have information about the costs of producing the vaccines? I am assuming the investment made is already a sunk cost. But what about fixed costs such as the manufacturing building or staff and variable costs such as the two components of the vaccine, package, etc.? Note: Some companies do business cases where the applicant is supposed to take the lead 100% and ask all the questions to get to the final answers. Other companies will give you more guidance and walk you through the different sections. In reality, the majority of them are somewhere in the middle.   So just be prepared and assume you lead, since this is usually more difficult (and also, it is awkward if you just go quiet waiting for the interviewer to say something). You can learn more: video , web . Step 4: Addressing the quantitative problem (20 min) Once you are done with collecting more inputs, follow these steps: Ask if you can t ake a minute to structure your thoughts, say "thanks" and then write down the process you will follow to get the answer Take a deep breath . This is where most people panic or get confused and forget what the main statement (client´s problem) is. Tell them how you are going to solve the problem. Follow a logic and order to make sure you don't get lost. For example: For example:  "If you are discussing pricing, first address willingness to pay of clients, then production costs; finally, propose a price and use it to estimate profits" For example:  "If you are discussing profitability, first estimate the client's volume (Q), then pricing (P), and finally costs, following the formula Profit = (P x Q) - Costs" Sample approach " To answer the client´s question, I will do three things: First, I will estimate the willingness to pay of patients to have as the main pricing input. Second, I will estimate the total cost per treatment (to ensure that is above the price patients want to pay). Finally, for the recommended price, I will estimate the total annual profits, so the client has a more accurate answer. So, for the willingness to pay - I have 5 segments, each of them with a different price. If I multiply X by Y .... i get Z. Then, I ...." It´s common that the interviewer shows you some graphs, charts or tables. What to do? First, take a few seconds to review it Second, share a quick summary of the content Third, mention any relevant insights Finally, explain how this data is helpful for solving the problem Sample answer:  " Here I can see a table with the split of patients by age and geographical distribution and the estimated willingness to pay. At first glance, I can see there is a direct correlation between age, living in the city and willingness to pay. That seems reasonable as older people in cities may have a higher average income. This data is useful because it tells us what the pricing should be if we could perfectly segment all the patients (...)" Step 5: Brainstorming on what else (5-8 min) After you are done with the Maths, it is possible you are asked a qualitative question for you to brainstorm. They want to test your structure, capacity to do problem-solving and be creative. Recruiter:  "What can our client do to increase the willingness to pay of patients?" These are questions that don´t sound numerical, but more like an invitation to just think. First, ask if you can take a minute to structure your thoughts, say "thanks" and then write down your ideas Second, structure your ideas in one or two layers, so it is not just a long list of ideas: Structure Example Bad (Mere List) Good (One Layer of Structure) Good (Two Layers of Structure) Ideas Raise price, invest in communications, explore discounts and referrals, do partnerships with pharmacies and distributors, etc. (A) Increase sales per patient: idea 1, idea 2, idea 3 (B) Increase client base (more patients): idea 1, idea 2, idea 3 (A) Increase sales per patient (A.1) More doses: idea 1 (A.2) Higher price: idea 1 (B) Increase client base (B.1) Suffering from apoplexy: idea 1 (B.2) Suffering from related condition: idea 1 Step 6: Giving a final recommendation (3-5 min Recruiter:  "So, what would you tell the client?" First, ask if you can take a few seconds to structure your thoughts and draft your answer Second, give a straightforward, short answer  to the question the client had. Then, add additional considerations  and/or relevant next steps. Sample answer: " Our client should sell the product at a price of USDX/ unit to maximize their profit, for a total of USD Y in yearly revenue (short answer). This price recommendation is considering that there is no option to segment patients based on willingness to pay, and that no relevant competitors enter the market in the short-term (considerations). As next steps, I would explore piloting a test in a limited location or with a sample of patients, as well as investigate the option to begin selling other medical products that could be relevant to this segment, such as monitoring devices (recommendation)" It´s important to keep in mind that preparing business cases isn´t about just memorizing steps and frameworks. It´s about internalizing the skills that are needed during the case. From time to time, you will find interviewers who ask questions for which there is not a specific framework. You will need to feel comfortable with developing solid frameworks on the spot. I was asked this during a McKinsey interview (final round). "A distant relative just passed away. He left you a tennis court in the middle of the city. What would you do?" Deep dive: The Framework You will find plenty of books and online resources focused on frameworks. They are useful, but generally it isn't very practical to memorize dozens of them- and you risk making it sound like "copied and pasted" the answers. A good tip is to use a generic framework focused on the process of getting to the answer and then tailor it based on the case you are given. This is useful because it makes you sound more action-oriented and already gives you a starting point to address any case problem. Below is the general structure, which works well for the majority of cases. First, investigate market forces. Second, understand internal client/ project's economics. Third, investigate additional client considerations Finally, consider risks (if applicable) Step Core Investigation Details & Focus Areas (The Mock Response) 1. Market Forces Understand the External Environment Addressable Market Competitive Force Socio-Economic Factors 2. Internal Economics Analyze the Client's Financials Financials: Revenue/Costs Investment 3. Other Considerations Identify Internal Synergies/Factors Product Portfolio Strategic fit Partnerships ... 4. Risks Assess Potential Obstacles Reputation Legal/Regulatory Other This is a mock response: First, I would like to investigate what is happening in the market: C ompetitive forces : I would focus on mapping other medical manufacturers offering the product and understanding if we should expect more actors entering the market soon. Are there alternative treatments? What is our market share? A ddressable market (i.e. volume of patients): It would be important to find estimations of the % of population that suffers from this condition and % that is treated. It would be interesting to know if this % are changing significantly in recent years S ocio-economic environment: It is important to consider if we are in a stable economy, or we expect any downward trend. I assume the demand for treatment should be quite stable because it may be a matter or life or death, but still, this could be a factor to consider. Note: These three subcategories (competition, market size and socio-economic issues) are relevant for most cases. You can, however, twist it to make it even more relevant. For example, in this case, you may want to mention that an economic crisis does not affect because it is a medical treatment, and instead focus on socio-cultural considerations (e.g. if it was AIDS, there may be taboo surrounding going to the doctor for help, thus affecting sales) Also, depending on the case, you may need to replace some sections, change the order or even build one from scratch. ___ Second, I would focus on understanding the client's economics: I would review estimations of volume of patients expected. specifically, those interested in being treated I would investigate their costs; first fixed, such as A and B; and then variable, such as Z and Y, and also the investment made so far. I will consider the investment cost a sunk cost  since the treatment is already fully developed. Note: In this case, it does not make sense to mention that you will consider the pricing because that is the answer you need to get to. You skip that part. ___ Third, I would consider other internal factors, such as: Other medical products in the portfolio, to consider whether cross-sell exists or it´s possible, since would affect sales strategy and pricing Potential partnerships with distributors which can influence costs thus pricing Note: These are just some examples that are useful to have at h and. Based on the case, you may come up with different ones ___ Finally, I would consider any risks associated with the pricing, such as: Reputational damage if pricing is considered very high Legal restrictions to set or change the pricing Also: Pricing cannibalization, lack of effectiveness of the treatment, etc. Note: There are cases where the risks section may not fit. Do not include if it does not fit easily. *** Twists to this generic framework If a case is about pricing : Include the final buyer's willingness to pay  considerations in the market forces section. Don´t make the mistake of saying you will you review the client´s pricing (figuring out the pricing is your job). Generally, pricing is set based on three considerations simultaneously: competitor´s pricing, client´s willingness to pay and internal costs (you need to cover those to be breakeven) If a case is about profitability , an investment or a decision go/no-go: When discussing the internal economics, mention that you plan to estimate the ROI, breakeven or a similar metric When discussing other considerations, consider mentioning that you want to map any potential alternative projects/ investments to understand opportunity costs In risks, you may want to mention the point of whether the client has related investment (know-how), and the risk-level associated to that industry (for ex. innovative industries or operations in unstable countries...) Formulas & Maths shortcuts Business cases do not require you to know complex formulas. Generally, the ones listed below should be enough to handle most business cases. Revenue = Volume x Price Cost = Fixed cost + variable cost Profit = Revenue - cost Profitability = Profit/ Revenue ROI = Annual profit/ initial investment Breakeven = Initial Investment / Annual profit Breakeven = Revenue - Costs = 0; X = .... Net profit vs Gross Profit vs operational profit margin Growth rate = (new %- old %)/old % x100 Rule 72 = for estimating the double time of an investment (how long it takes to double the value). Divide 72 by the annual interest rate (%) to estimate the doubling time. For ex. if the growth rate is 6%, the investment doubles in 12 years (72/6) If your target company is specialized in a certain area (e.g. pricing), you may want to review whether there are any other basic formulas involved. In many cases, consulting firms will expect you to do the Maths by hand (without a calculator). That means you need to practice to ensure you are comfortable on the day of the interview. Notating the units (K for thousands, M for millions) for large numbers, asking if you can round, and memorizing 1/2, 1/3, 1/4, ...1/9 are examples of tips that can save you that day. Here are some websites that give you free tips on how to be better with math during business cases: Math Drills | Fast Math Case Prep Fast Math in Case Interviews Case Interview Math (formulas, practice problems, tips) - IGotAnOffer Consulting math: all you need to know (and how to practice) To get the problem right Avoid Doing This Recommendation Do not forget eye-contact. Maintain eye contact.  Consulting is about connecting with your client (or interviewer), not just solving problems. Do not (wrongly) assume that being professional equals being serious. Smile and project enthusiasm.  Being professional doesn't mean being serious. Show genuine excitement for the case; if you seem to suffer, the interviewer won't be excited to work with you. Do not be unprepared - paper, pencil or a calculator Be prepared.  Always have your paper, pen/pencil, and a calculator ready before the interview begins. Do not ask the interviewer if you are on track or if your approach is correct. Do not seek validation.  Assume your approach is correct and keep going; confidence is key. Do not believe the interviewer just wants to hear the final number. Involve the interviewer.  They want to know how you think  and the process by which you reach the answer, not just the final number. Do not use generic terms when discussing the framework or giving examples. Use client-specific language.  Show market understanding by using precise terms. E.g. use " treatment " instead of product , " patient " instead of client , and " hospital " instead of shop  in a medical context. Avoid Doing This Recommendation Do not hold important clarifying question for fear of sounding dummy. Ask clarifying questions early.  Don't hold back important questions for fear of sounding uninformed. You need all the details to get to the bottom of the problem. Do not forget the key problem statement. Remember the objective.  Keep the key problem statement in mind, or revise your notes if needed. Never ask the interviewer to repeat the main problem statement Do not assume that you know what the client wants just because the statement includes some vague goal. Verify the client's goals.  Don't assume you know the objective. Fully understand the main goal(s) of your client from the beginning (e.g., "Is the goal strictly maximizing profit, or are there additional important objectives?"). When you get to a number, do not assume it is correct. Sense-check your numbers.  When you reach a calculation, take a second to think if the number makes logical sense (the "sniff test"). If you make a mistake, do not panic. Handle mistakes calmly.  If you realize you've made a math error, do not panic. State clearly: "I think I may have made a mistake. Let me quickly review my math to ensure I got it right." What matters is that you realize it quickly. Networking Preparing business cases is often easier for people with connections in a consulting firm. Why? They can get first- hand guidance (like the advice above) and, more importantly, use those connections to practice mock interviews. How to leverage connections If you know someone  who works at a consulting firm, ask them for a favor: a 45-minute mock case  run-through (when you already feel you are 99% ready) If you don´t know anyone, it is okay. There is  plenty of material to read  (see relevant links below) Ultimately, the most important step is to find people to do mock practice with —either current consultants or other candidates who are in the same application process as you. If you don't know any consultants: Reach out on LinkedIn. Contact people who hold a similar position to the one you are applying for, even if you don't know them ( read here for more detail). If you want to find other candidates to practice with: Use platforms and forums  to find candidates. Structure your sessions:  Usually, you agree on having a videoconference and doing two mock cases. First, one person is the interviewer, and then that same person becomes the candidate. This closely resembles a real interview Tips for effective practice: This is recommended when you already know the structure and have done some mock cases while keeping track of the time. Try to choose a partner who is at a similar level of practice (e.g. +10 mock cases) Practice with more than one partner , so you get different types of feedback Ask case partners for specific types of cases that you need to work on (e.g. different industries) Prepare a case to give to your partner, so your feedback is better, and you add value to them Where to find partners You can find groups dedicated to consulting prep on LinkedIn, Facebook or similar (1) Case Interview Partners | Groups | LinkedIn Interview Partner: Candidate Listing | PrepLounge.com

Detailed guidance on how to write a top-notch cover letter. Includes a template, samples and pro tips to avoid common mistakes. Why write a cover letter Recruiters ask for cover letters because they offer valuable insights into a candidate's personality, communication skills, and motivation. Also, it allows candidates to personalize their application and be explicit about how their experience and skills fit the specific role and company. Resumes and cover letters serve different purposes. While your resume is a polished summary of what you have accomplished so far, your cover letter is a professional letter that provides context and explains what you plan to do in the future. Not all jobs require cover letters. However, submitting one is a good opportunity to catch the attention of the recruiter and stand out from the crowd. In addition, if submitted when optional, it shows that you genuinely care about your application and are willing to go the extra mile. Cover letters are as important as resumes. A bad cover letter can cancel the impact of a good resume, though an impressive cover letter is unlikely to salvage a poor resume. Structure Here is the general structure of a cover letter: I. Contant information Your Name State, Zip Email and phone number Today’s Date II. Recipient information Mr./Ms./Dr. Name (actual name) Title Organization Address ** Body paragraph Dear (recipient name): The opening paragraph  (max. 5-6 lines) should clearly explain why you are writing, stating your specific employment interest. It´s also helpful to include an overall summary of the key skills, knowledge areas, or experiences that you bring to this role. The next paragraphs will then expand on and illustrate what you are summarizing in this first paragraph. The middle paragraph(s)  (max. 12- 15 lines) should summarize the aspects of your background that will interest the employer. Discuss your qualifications in terms of the contributions you can make. Ideally, focus on a specific role or project which best showcases your skills and impact. While you shouldn´t repeat your resume verbatim, don’t hesitate to refer to the most important information discussed in it. The closing paragraph  (max 6-7 lines) should explain why the position and the particular organization are attractive to you. It should also pave the way for the interview. Provide three authentic, specific and well-researched reasons. Step by step and Sample cover letter Opening paragraph   Be clear about the position you are applying to and why you are a candidate worth considering. If you start off with a very specific conclusion that confidently states that you have what the employer is looking for, then the reader will also gain confidence that your letter and resume are worth reading. Although writing a standard opening is correct, you can also include a short, catchier introduction that encourages the recruiter to keep reading. Standard Intro: I am excited to apply for the position of Sr. Project Management at Meta Product Data Operations team. My strong educational background in Project management, coupled with +7 years of experience delivering complex operational efficiency projects in the technology industry for +20 leading clients, makes me a very solid candidate for this position. Catchier Intro: I am excited to apply for the position of Sr. Project Management at Meta Product Data Operations team. My passion for this field began when I was just a child and I saw my father dealing with complex infrastructure projects at X company. Since then, I have acquired a strong educational background in Project management and dedicated the last 7 years to delivering complex operational efficiency projects in the technology industry for +20 leading clients. This makes me a very solid candidate for the position. Middle paragraph(s) Rather than summarizing the content of your resume, focus on a few things that can show relevant skills you leveraged (transferable to the new position), as well as the impact you achieved. 1. Identify the skills, experiences, qualities that you would like to focus on in this paragraph 2. Support the skills, experiences, and qualities of focus with examples that demonstrate them 3. Demonstrate how this ties back to the position, if necessary Rather than saying explicit things like “I can make a uniquely valuable contribution to your organization”, give the employer enough relevant, targeted information so they can reach that conclusion by themselves. Also, be specific and credible. Tell stories that have context (START Method), so they can understand why they mattered. For example: “When I was working as the president of X student group, one of the challenges that we faced was XYZ.” Once you have created a touch of drama, describe how you used your skills to overcome it, for example: “So what I had to do was build relationships with administrators on campus by communicating the critical role our group played in doing ABC.” Sample: For almost five years, I provided +50 sales specialists with technical support for developing all the national proposals in the X industry. This role was key because each project was signed for an average of USD X M, and any miscalculation would involve serious legal and financial implications ( context/drama; data ). Here, I developed very strong PMO capabilities, especially budget and stakeholder management given my responsibility for reviewing all budgets (total USD Y M) and coordinating deviations with the financial department ( relevant skills ). My proactivity in designing a new financial tracker ensured X and Y, and 100% of the projects met their KPIs ( impact ). Closing paragraph   Write three reasons why you want the job and why you want to work for them. Avoid generic comments that would apply to any job or company. Even if they know you are probably applying to other positions, you need to make them feel this is not the case. For Why this role position, you can explain your genuine interest for many reasons: Opportunity to apply know-how to another industry Opportunity to specialize more in something you do today Interest in broadening the scope you have today (be careful with implying you don´t have the necessary experience) Interest in applying your experience to a new client segment Interest in combining skills from different jobs into one position Excitement about building something from scratch (e.g. a team) .... Sample (job): This role excites me for several reasons. First, it allows me to deep dive in an industry that I am familiar with and that I consider the most technical and complex. Second, it will allow me to combine a focus on sales processes with the management of day-to-day operational processes. Finally, it will be an opportunity to apply strong team management skills to help grow an even bigger team. For Why this company , do research. Often, this is the part where candidates fail. It´s common that they say things like "I want to work in Meta because it is a very innovative company, it is growing fast, and it offers growth opportunities." This statement could apply to thousands of companies. You can explain your genuine interest for many reasons, and it is important you are specific to show you did research and include some supportive data/ facts: Company is investing heavily in innovation Company is one of the fastest growing Company is pioneering in certain tools, methodologies, etc. Company has a culture that aligns with your values Company is focused on client segments that you value Company has a social cause you believe in ... Sample (job): Meta is my first choice by far. You have invested in innovation and new development more than any other tech company in 2024 (USD X M). You have an impressive growth record as a result of purchases such as X companies and your expansion to Y geographies. Finally, I did research on Glassdoor and spoke to a few current employees in the NY office and the culture stands out for teamwork and growth opportunities, which are my top priorities when deciding where to work. I look forward to hearing from you. Best regards, More tips Structure Write a new cover letter for every job application, ensuring it’s tailored to the company and the specific role (even if you recycle some sections) Do not use more than one page (aim for 3-4 paragraphs) Address the letter to a named person whenever possible. If you can´t find a named contact, you could use ‘Dear Recruitment Manager’ or ‘Dear Recruiter’ Include the actual address of the company HQ or the office location you are applying to Include an actual digital signature  (not just your typed name) Content & Evidence Give evidence for your claims. If you say you are proactive or good at problem-solving, you need to demonstrate this with a specific, relevant example Quantify your evidence whenever possible (e.g how much, how many, how often, or monetary value) Match the keywords used by the employer in their job advertisement to show alignment with the role´s requirements Maintain an enthusiastic and interested tone Style Avoid passive voice  (e.g use "I accepted X offer" rather than "An offer was given to me") Do not start every sentence with "I" (e.g. say "Meta is my first choice" rather than "I would love to work for Meta") Avoid overly long  or difficult-to-understand sentences Double check spelling and grammar before you send it Give yourself plenty of time to review and revise before the application deadline Keep a copy of your cover letter as recruiters may ask you about its content in an interview < Click here  to go back to " Tech companies " Menu>

An introduction to the types of consulting firms, why the market values consultants, and key considerations for finding the best fit for you The best consulting firms The global consulting market was valued a t US$510 billion in 2023, and it is expected to grow to US$900 billion by 2034. This shows the impressive scale of the industry. Consulting firms are deeply embedded in our daily lives, even if we don´t directly interact with them. They are often unseen architects of the modern consumer experience, the economy, or the public sector. When a major company—be it a telecom provider, a healthcare system, a retail giant —decides to launch a new product, enter a new market, or cut costs, a consulting firm is often hired to design the strategy. This means the layout of your grocery store, the efficiency of your bank's app, or the process for your hospital visit have likely been shaped by the recommendations of external consultants. Also, governments hire consulting firms to define country strategies or large projects. There are thousands of firms around the world. One way of beginning your search is classifying them by expertise (i.e. industry or function) and their level of prestige. Most often, people in the business world refer to consulting when they mean management consulting specifically. Management Consulting / Strategy consulting (MBB) Focus: Efficient operations / Strategic decisions Note that management & strategy are not the same thing, although the ranking of top firms does not change much. Top: McKinsey & Co, Boston Consulting Group (BCG) or Bain & Co (together known as MBB ). These are the most difficult to get into, but also the most respected. They demand a lot from you, but in general all consulting firms do that - so better to do it for the best. Alternatives: Tier 2: Reputable medium-sized such as Accenture, Booz Allen Hamilton, Oliver Wyman, among others The Big Four, so named because they are the largest: Deloitte, Ernst & Young (EY), PricewaterhouseCoopers (PwC), and Klynveld Peat Marwick Goerdeler (KPMG). Here you can read more about them Pricing Focus: Pricing strategies Top:  Simon-Kucher, Kearney, Grant Thornton Note that in many cases, the same firms come up as top for many different topics. This is because they are large-scale enough to specialize in many different disciplines, and these are often applicable to many industries. Technology Focus: Use of technology to grow Top: McKinsey & Co, Boston Consulting Group (BCG) or Bain & Co, Accenture, IBM Global Business Services, Booz Allen Hamilton  Public sector Focus: Improve performance of public institutions Top: Dalberg, McKinsey & Co, Boston Consulting Group (BCG) or Bain & Co, Booz Allen Hamilton This area also includes non-profit organizations such as Development Banks (Inter-American, Africa, Asian Development Banks), U.S Agencies (divided by themes such as child, labor, etc.) or state agencies (for example, DAI in the USA) which also employ consultants to carry out projects focused on improving the lives of vulnerable people in emerging markets. You can find a ranking here . Please, take it as a reference, not a source of truth. What firm to target? Since getting into consulting takes time and a lot of effort, it is better to aim for the best and most renowned companies - for whatever discipline you choose. If you don't make it, that's okay - the others are not bad options and will give you the consulting toolkit as well. If you are starting your career and you aren´t specialized in or very excited about a specific topic (e.g. technology or marketing), it is better to consider a more agnostic option such as management consulting. Why? (1) Wide spectrum of topics and industries.  Discussing strategy means touching many disciplines such as finance, operations and marketing. While many consulting types offer management skills,  management consulting is the most complete consulting type because it covers more topics (more general, though). This gives you an opportunity to figure out what you enjoy the most or what you don't like before specializing. (2) Transferable leadership skills. Management consulting is about forcing CEOs to be strategic and efficient in their operations. You can imagine how learning those skills will help you down the road if your plan is to lead a company. McKinsey & Co has produced more CEOs than any other company, with some sources stating that over 7% of former McKinsey employees became CEOs. These are some questions to guide you throughout the process of choosing which sort of consulting firm you want to apply to: Am I interested in learning about many disciplines or a specific one? In which business functions and industries does the firm specialize? What is the firm most known for? (e.g. management, technology) What is the culture of the firm? What type of projects does the firm work on? Who are their clients? What are the compensation and benefits? What are the opportunities for growth? The top management consulting firms (McKinsey, BCG and Bain or "MBB") usually apply an "up-or-out" policy. In every six-month performance assessment, they either consider you can grow and be promoted fast, or they invite you to leave the firm. Other firms are less strict and more likely to keep you, but it takes more time to advance to the next level. What do employees say about the firm? Check websites such as Indeed & Glassdoor to read about the good and bad. There are hundreds of small consulting firms in every country. These are not bad options, especially if you are not attracted by big brands or multinational companies. If you are, then I recommend that you target the firms that appear at the top of the ranking since they are widely recognized and will be easier to leverage when you seek your next job with a well-known brand. There is a lot of material about these companies. Here are some sites to investigate more: 15 Types of Consulting (And How To Choose Your Specialty) 15 Top Consulting Firms (2025) Best Consulting Firms to Work For | Most Prestigious < Click here  to go back to " Consulting " Menu>

A guide to understand the basics of the recruitment process of top universities. Includes the pillars your applications must include and tips to decide when to apply. The recruiting process at glance To get into an MBA or Master´s program in a top university, you need to convince them that you are solid at six levels or pillars. These six pillars should be embedded throughout the application processes, specifically your resume, tests, essays, recommendation letters, referrals, and interviews. SIX KEY PILLARS #1 Academic   – You have a solid education background - shown in your resume #2 Work experience  – You have developed skills at work and made a significant impact - shown in your resume and recommendations #3  Leadership  – You led topics at work, in your community (e.g. volunteering), and in social environments (e.g. school alumni), and you can be specific about the details - shown in resume, essays, and recommendations #4 Test scores   – You achieved a high score in standardized tests - shown in test scores #5 Answers to Why   – You have convincing answers for: Why this program? Why this university? Why now? You also have clear mid-term goals and know how this University contributes to those goals - shown in essays and referrals #6 Networking – you can network and expand your connections (regardless of how strong your network is today). By the end of the process, you will need to get referrals from alumni who attended the university you are applying to - shown in referrals . Read this blog about networking to understand why it matters. There is a minimum to pass each of these six pillars. If you miss one, you will be either waitlisted or directly rejected. If you are rejected, you cannot usually apply to another round within the same year. Pillars #1, #2, and #3 depend on what you did in the past. There is some room for action in the short-term; you can work hard on a resume that makes the best out of your experience; or you can sign up for volunteering if you are missing (community) leadership examples. Pillar #4 depends on your ability to do well in this sort of exam, but it also depends on the time invested in preparation and your budget for retry attempts. Pillars #5 and #6 totally depend on what you do today and can be significantly improved with networking and hard work from now on. Good news! If you don´t meet the minimum for these five pillars this year, do not assume that next year the outcome will be the same. Universities value very much when a prospect candidate who didn´t make in the previous year tries again the following year. That is linked to Pillar #5 because you show determination to get into that specific university. Before you jump into the advice for each application step, please keep in mind that general guidance and specific requirements vary from year to year. The best advice we can give you is that you become the “owner” of your own process by doing a lot of research and networking, especially with current students and recent alumni. No website alone will get you into a top university. When to apply Universities have several application rounds. You may read that there is no difference between applying to one or another. However, some people keep a (reasonable) theory in mind.   The most prepared, determined people are more likely to apply in the first round. Why? On the one hand, competition may be harder in the first round. On the other hand, if you are placed on a waitlist, you have more time for the university to change their verdict. So, depending on whether your application is strong (or not), you may want to apply in the first round (or subsequent ones). Some people end up drafting a strategy where they apply to X and Y Universities in the first round and to Z and Q in the second. That makes sense since (1) each application has a cost, and (2) most universities tell you about their decision before opening the next round. Another thing to keep in mind is that deferring one year your entrance if accepted is generally not possible. Universities select diverse profiles to design a specific mix of students in class. So, your profile may be a good match this year, but not the next one. Under very special circumstances one may be able to defer, but this is the exception and not the rule - and not a recommended strategy with top universities. Others are not so strict, so this may work. Now that you know the basics, you can read here the next steps for applying. < Click here  to go back to " Postgraduate " Menu>

An intro to the recruitment process of tech companies such as Google. Includes pro tips, an overview of the process and guidance on how to network. What profiles tech companies seek Only Google and Amazon alone employ over 1.7 million people worldwide. As you can imagine, the spectrum of profiles recruited is very broad, ranging from highly technical roles to HR and finance professionals. Overall, they can be classified into a few categories: Core technical roles: Focused on the development, testing and deployment of software products and services (e.g. S oftware engineers, ML engineers, Data scientists / analysts, Hardware engineers, etc.) Sample backgrounds: Computer science, Software engineering, Computing engineering, Information technology, Mathematics, Statistics, Physics. Product and project managers: Focused on the end-to-end strategy and release of new products (e.g. app features) and large end-to-end projects (e.g. new device release) Sample background: Business administration, Economics, Computer science, Operations management, Supply chain management User experience & research: Focused on understanding user behavior, preferences, and optimizing the product experience Sample background: Industrial design, Graphic design, Human-computer interaction, Marketing, Statistics Business, sales and marketing Sample background: Business administration, Economics, Marketing, International business, Law, Communications Highly specialized roles : Unique positions specific to each company's business model (e.g., specialized cloud/ad sales at Google, operations and logistics engineers at Amazon, AR/VR experts at Meta). Depending on their latest strategies and the macro socio-economic environment in which they operate, they may decide to prioritize some profile categories over others, and this can change over time. An intro to tech companies A surprising number of technology companies have roots that date back to the 1800s. Nokia, Siemens, General Electric (founded by a well-known tech savvy called Thomas Edison), Toshiba, AT&T, Nintendo and Philips are just some examples from all around the world. These companies made major technological breakthroughs, well before the appearance of computers and the Internet. "Tech company" is a very broad term. It refers to any organization that focuses on the development, manufacturing, or distribution of technology-based products and services. Nowadays, many companies, ranging from large multinational to small start-ups, operate in various technologies. Examples include those focused on: Hardware - Samsung, Apple, Lenovo Software - Salesforce, Microsoft, Uber Internet services (covering entertainment, retail, etc.) - Google, Meta, Amazon Financial (bank, fintech, etc.) - PayPal, Square ... Some recent tech trends such as applied AI, advanced connectivity, and machine learning, just to mention a few (read more here ) have revolutionized the global technology market is valued at USD 6.4 T. Tech companies innovate, lead technology revolutions, offer growth opportunities due to the dynamic markets in which they operate, and feature vibrant networks of well-prepared, ambitious young professionals. It doesn't come as a surprise that they are picky when it comes to recruiting, with low acceptance rates that range from 0.5% (Google) to 5-10% (Meta). An overview of the recruiting process Most tech companies follow a similar recruitment process. This process is designed to test technical skills, soft skills, capabilities, and cultural fit with the company´s values and way of working. Common phases include: Resume/ LinkedIn profile screening: Assesses experience, relevant skills, and expertise Screening call: Validates basic qualifications, cultural fit, and confirms requirements (e.g. visa sponsorship). May include high-level questions (e.g. "walk me through your resume" ), interests, behavioral or experience-related questions Online assessment & technical tests: Required for core technical roles Interviews (remote or on-site): Assesses technical depth, behavioral competence, and cultural alignment Business case or market sizing: Most common for business, product, or consulting-style roles. The approach may vary based on the specific role and company. So, you need to research the specific recruiting process details of each target company. For example, Google is well-known for its rigorous technical tests for core roles, while Amazon focuses its interviews mainly on behavioral questions (Leadership principles. Start building networks You may think professional connections aren´t important because these firms use standardized processes and tests. However, understanding the process steps in detail and what they look for is key. Much of this you can find online, but it´s always better to complement it with coaching and recommendations from people currently working in these positions. They offer insights into good strategies and day-to-day details, which will help you sound more convincing when asked about your interest in the role. How to build your network These are a few simple things to start with: Thoroughly research  the firms you want to target - their history, culture, values, etc. Monitor company social media for gathering insights into business focus and culture, and for tracking open applications Try to find secondary connections in these companies (friends of friends), as they are often more prone to help you On LinkedIn, check your first and second- degree connections or alumni from your university working at these companies - and reach out On LinkedIn, request to connect with relevant contacts (i.e. target analysts if you want to apply to an entry-level position). A polite message or email can take you far. When you reach out to people you don't know (e.g. on LinkedIn), you can use a simple structure such as the one below. Don´t give up if some people don't respond. Wait 3 to 4 days and send a polite follow up. Sometimes they just need a reminder to respond. Some will do eventually. Hi [Name], I hope you are doing well. My name is X and I am a Y. For the last two years, I have been reading a lot about the history, culture and innovations of X company, and I am planning to apply soon. I admire you made it through the process a few years ago. I know you are busy, but if you have a few minutes, I would love to know about your experience in the recruitment process and any advice you may have. Do you have 15-20 min to talk this week? Thank you in advance! Key rules for networking Do research before reaching out to people Have your questions/ topics ready before any call/ discussion Avoid generic messages ("I have followed your career, and I am impressed") Use their time to learn (about their job, the interview process, the firm, the culture): Don´t ask for a job Diversify your contacts: Entry-level people can also give you more practical tips about the process, while senior people can discuss more high-level topics such as corporate culture or general career coaching Have ready your elevator pitch: Have an answer for basic questions such as "Why are you interested in consulting?" "When do you plan to apply?", "What are your top options"? Respect their time: Don´t ask for more than 30 min in the first contact, acknowledge you know they are busy, and never be late to an appointment Track connections: Send "thank you" notes and keep them updated on your applications (very helpful if you need to reach out again later on) Before applying Getting into tech companies is tough. Their process is highly competitive, it requires intense preparation, and you need to be fully committed. So, before you start preparing yourself, think if it is the right moment and you have the time and motivation to invest a lot of hours. If not, it may be better to wait. Starting the preparation Be strategic about the timing (and be ready) Map all the job openings and review their descriptions carefully. Before applying, make sure you fully understand the recruitment process of that company and ask yourself critically if you are 80% prepared to st art the process tomorrow. Once you apply, they can call you back at any time. If you are interviewing for a non-technical job at Amazon, two or three full days of work may be enough to prepare solid behavioral answers. If the process involves a business case or a technical test, you may need to prepare for weeks (or even months). Make sure you have the time to do this. Consider practicing with non-target (similar) firms. Y ou may want to begin the hiring process with the firms that aren´t your top choice. This way, you can practice the real processes without risking too much. Be consistent Becoming solid at any of the recruiting steps requires hours of preparation. Dedicate at least 1-2 hours per weekday and 2-4 hours per weekend day for as long as needed. Each person is different, and you may need more or less time. Leverage all the resources available This Platform is a good starting point, but don´t limit yourself. Leverage all other available resources—and be sure to network as much as possible. More materials There are a bunch of websites designed to help you to prepare for interviews. While most of their advanced features require a subscription, they offer relevant free content. Below are the main resources, ranked by the amount of free content available: < Click here  to go back to " Tech companies " Menu>

Google l Ireland l Senior Account Manager A 60-min interview with Paula Marcos, a Senior Account Manager at Google. Keep in mind that this interview only provides high-level guidance on how to better prepare for the interviews and illustrates the sort of relevant insights you can find by networking with people. It doesn´t intend to describe the interview process in detail. Enjoy the talk! #1: Why Google initially? And why Google now? Initially, I had worked in companies that were working with Google, so I knew many teams. I had a very good opinion of them and enjoyed working closely. They also offer great work-life balance. It felt like a natural step in my career. Now, I find more reasons to stay or recommend Google to other people. Fist, the networking is great. Since I have a sales role, I need to engage with many companies and leadership teams. Representing Google opens many doors, and CEOs are willing to listen to you. I also enjoy having high-level, strategic conversations with them. Eventually, these connections can create new opportunities. Second, the diversity of the team. Ireland is a hub, so people come from every corner of the world, and it´s truly a diverse, energetic environment . #2: Anything you would change? Something to keep in mind is that in Google, like any other large corporation (at least from the US), doing a good job isn´t enough. You also need to make an effort to be seen by others and demonstrate the impact your work has. This can be a challenge for more introverted profiles . For me, it was a learning process. #3: What defines the culture at Google? Don´t be evil. This is an old informal motto of Google. It doesn´t appear in the code of conduct anymore, but I think it still represents us. We collaborate, we help each other, we listen actively, don´t judge, and empathize with others. " Googliness" (read more here ) is also helpful to understand the culture of Google. In my day to day, I focus on achieving KPIs, measuring impact, collaborating with others. #4: How did you get to the interview process? I knew that they did. Given my previous work with Google teams, I knew what they did. I knew what to apply to.  I asked for help from an employee to understand the job posts. At Google, many job descriptions are almost similar, so it is not clear how they differ, or which one you fit with. For example, it is not so clear what requirements they really have because they are generic and similar to each other. So, it´s important you reach out to someone within the company who can help you understand which job is the best fit. I had a strong resume:  I prepared a resume that was tailored to the position (after I fully understood it) and that highlighted the tangible impact my work had. I was also ready to defend it during the interviews. #5:  How were your interviews? My process had four interviews. There was a hiring committee, although the hiring manager had more weight on the hire/ no-hire decision. There were different types of interviews: (1) Role-related knowledge: This depends on the role. In my case, the job was related to sales, so the questions were focused on sales past experience, work challenges, industry trends, etc. (2) Googliness & leadership: They usually involved standard behavioral questions (" Tell me about a time when you ..."). Some of them focus on what we call “Googliness”; the attitudes and character traits that Google wants its employees to have (read more here ). It somehow measures the cultural fit, or rather how you add to Google. (3) Thinking outside the box: Here you can have a mix of questions, from market sizing (estimate the number of...) to a case study such as " The CEO wants you to grow revenues. What would you do?" . These cases aren´t like the ones you get for consulting. They are more focused on the brainstorming part, so you aren´t expected to do Maths. That said, preparing standard business cases helped me improve my structure and answers. Generally, they want to see your thought process and how you solve problems. You can also get a case study. Generally, you have the chance to ask discovery/ clarifying questions that help you give a better answer. If you don´t have all the information, make assumptions, explain your rationality behind and validate that they make sense to the interviewer. It is relatively hard to prepare these questions because they can vary significantly, but it is important that you work on your reasoning/ thought process and analytical thinking. #6: Can networking help with the recruitment process? Yes. First, getting help to understand the job posts. Also, referrals can help your case. If you network, there is a chance that you connect well with someone at Google and if you are a good fit, they decide to refer you. Something that helped me a lot, even if it isn´t networking per se, was reviewing YouTube videos. There are Google recruiters with channels that give you all the information you need. There is no excuse to not be ready. #7: Is it a good idea to contact the hiring manager? It really depends on the hiring manager. If you are polite, it may work. You can ask for more detail about the position and for recommendations for the process. You risk finding someone who doesn´t like it, though. I guess in the worst-case scenario, they just don´t answer you. But I would say generally, it isn´t necessary. #8: And... any final recommendations? People think that getting into Google is too difficult, but there is really a lot of diverse profiles. You face competition, but after a few attempts you can make it. It really depends how hard you try, how many attempts you make, and how well prepared you are for the process. I didn´t get the job the first time, they picked someone else. But I asked for feedback (always important), and it was helpful. Also, of you make it to the end but aren´t selected, they might keep you in mind for other positions. You never know.

Microsoft l Chile l Account Technology Strategist A 60-min interview with Andre Aquiles from Microsoft Keep in mind that this interview only provides high-level guidance on how to better prepare for the interviews and illustrates the sort of relevant insights you can find by networking with people. It doesn´t intend to describe the interview process in detail. Enjoy the talk! #1:  How did you land a job at Microsoft? At SAS, I had worked with teams from many companies: Samsung, Huawei, Google, etc. I had a good connection with a person from Microsoft who ended up referring me and being my hiring manager. Today, I have a technical role within the sales team. Before, I worked at SAS and realized that I was getting behind in all the cloud advancements. When I wanted to change jobs, I did research and found out that getting into a tech company - Google, AWS, Oracle, IBM, Accenture, Deloitte - was easier if you have a technical profile. The sales-related roles tend to be filled out with internal candidates. They usually look outside for senior profiles with strong networks and connections. Therefore, the easiest option was to obtain some certificates and start with a more technical profile. In the tech industry there are a few well-defined tracks, and each track has 2 to 3 certifications to obtain the technical foundations - these are key for the recruitment process. This works for Microsoft, Google and Amazon. Analyze which ones have more demand. In Amazon, for example, the first interview already includes technical questions related to those certifications. Google, more similar to Microsoft, has a screening call, then a technical interview, and finally a behavioral interview. Once you are in with a tech role in any of these companies, it is relatively easy to move around. #2:  How was your recruitment process? It was four interviews in total. The first interview was a screening call with HR. They wanted to validate my English skills, asked a few basic questions, and confirm my fit with the position The second was two architects who would be working with me. I had to build a Cloud solution and explain it to him (how data is processed, how I generated statistical models, etc.) The third was with the hiring manager with a focus on behavioral/ business questions (30 min) and a technical part - " Share your screen and do... "(20-30 min) The final round was with the Latin America Director from the customer success unit Preparing the interview isn´t so difficult because there is a well-defined technical track within the company. You need to validate the certifications and do research on the specific interviews. #3:  What makes a resume solid for a profile with mix of tech/ sales? Highlight business impact, not just technical skills. We have a strong sales focus, so it's crucial to go beyond listing technical abilities. You should frame your experience by highlighting your impact on sales and client adoption. We are measured by solutions utilization rates, not just sales volume. This means including metrics that demonstrate how your work led to business outcomes, such as increased solution utilization, expanded client licenses, or improved client retention. This positions your technical expertise as an enabler for sales and client value. #4:  How does networking help? It is useful to do networking - think whether you have worked with someone or know a person who has a contact inside the company. Speaking with an insider can give you valuable insights on what they look for in a candidate and answer your questions about the process. Also, they may be willing to give you a referral, which always gives you a small advantage. #5:  How is the culture at Microsoft? All Microsoft branches outside the USA and India are franchises with a strong sales focus. As a result, we are truly client-obsessed. In my previous roles, I often worked in teams focused on forcing a sale. Here, however, similar discussions always end with the same questions: "What's best for the client?" and "How do we maximize our revenue by doing what's best for them?". This was a massive paradigm shift for me, and it's easy to see why this customer-centric approach is effective. #6:  What do you collaborate with other teams in your office? Microsoft's organizational structure for customer-facing roles is quite distinct. We have our headquarters and regional teams, like the LATAM team. The local teams are split into three units: Account Teams:  These teams have assigned clients and are directly responsible for sales quotas. Specialists:  These are deep product experts who work with a wider range of clients, often segmented by industry. They are responsible for developing proofs of concept and outlining the technical solutions clients need. Success Teams:  This unit is responsible for implementing these solutions or helping clients with the implementation process. My primary role is to identify new opportunities and ensure we deliver on the client's expectations. My typical workflow follows a clear process: First, I collaborate with a client's C-level executives (like the CEO and CTO) to validate and develop their annual plan. From there, we map out specific opportunities Next, I engage our specialists to help define the technical architecture. If the plan is solid, we bring in architects to refine it further The final step is to implement the various initiatives My main challenge is managing a large volume of new requests and initiatives. Our team of specialists, who are essential for implementing these solutions, is a limited resource. This requires a strong prioritization strategy. Thanks!

Meta l United States l Products Ops Manager (current) A 60-min interview with Brian Cheng, a Products Ops Manager at Meta. Keep in mind that this interview only provides high-level guidance on how to better prepare for the interviews and illustrates the sort of relevant insights you can find by networking with people. It doesn´t intend to describe the interview process in detail. Enjoy the talk! #1: What do you do as a Product Ops Manager? This role is focused on assisting the operations team to launch new products and features. For example, we test features and collect bug data, so we can work with vendors to categorize them and channel them to the right tech teams for fixes. In this role, we focus on optimizing rather than releasing new products. #2: Why Meta? I wanted to work on something that was customer-facing. I also wanted a large company that is always in the news for leading and changing the technology discussion worldwide. Precisely because it´s such a relevant player in the industry, we can be impactful and change how people interact with technology to make it a more integral part of their lives. #3: What defines the culture at Meta? It´s a company where people skills matter a lot. The impact you have is not about what you know; it is about the relationships you can build and nurture within the company. The culture is about collaboration and teamwork. In my interviews, it was important for them to know that I had experience working with people to get things done. Your personal brand is key to growing professionally. #4: How was your recruitment process? A screening call was followed by the submission of my resume. Then, I had a call with the manager, where he asked behavioral questions and gave me space to also ask about the role and the company. Then, I had the super day (three interviews in one day): The first was technical: it included a real-time SQL exercise and a few technical questions about my past experience (this depends on the role your are interviewing for) The other two were business cases, more qualitative than the ones you expect to enter consulting companies such as McKinsey. For example: "In which city would you launch the product and why?" Meta is one of the big techs with the most qualitative recruitment process. In my case, it was very useful to prepare cases for consulting, so I was ready for more quantitative/ tougher questions. At the end, the underlying skills are very similar - your capacity to structure, to solve problems, etc. Finally, I had a call with the hiring manager to align expectations on the role and ensure I was a solid cultural fit. #5: Did networking help you get the job? It did. It was very useful that I spoke with someone from the team, including the actual hiring manager, to understand their work and what they were looking for. I also asked him to link me to someone from the team, so I could dig into expectations for the role, most relevant skills, etc. From my old school, someone was working at Google as Product Ops Manager. I reached out to him on LinkedIn, so he agreed to help me prepare. He actually became my mentor, so when I was unemployed, he guided me and helped me prepare the process. When I applied to Meta, he also gave me relevant information: which type of SQL questions I would get, how to better answer, etc. He advised me to always prepare for the worst-case scenario (tougher questions). He has been extremely helpful. #6: What advice would you give to someone in the process today? For any job you want, or you are considering applying, it's helpful to do self-reflection. Where are you going? Why? (You need end goal to work backwards) What are the major skill sets, and who are the right people to help you understand this? What can I do now to get prepared? Sometimes there is a gap between Me today and where I want to get to; draw an action plan to close that gap.

Amazon l Mexico l Sr. Product Manager A 60-min interview with Francisco Oyola, a Sr, Product Manager at Amazon. Keep in mind that this interview only provides high-level guidance on how to better prepare for the interviews and illustrates the sort of relevant insights you can find by networking with people. It doesn´t intend to describe the interview process in detail. Enjoy the talk! #1: What do you do as a Sr. Product Manager? Initially, my role was centered on managing a retail catalog to ensure a positive customer experience and facilitate informed purchasing decisions, broken down into 3 main areas of work: Catalog Creation (Lifting):  Building the catalog itself. Information Accuracy:  Ensuring that all product details are correct. Improvement Projects:  This involves using technology like AI and Machine Learning to automate the creation of relevant product information, pulling it directly from official vendor websites to avoid manual data entry. My role has shifted to transportation now, with a focus on two primary goals: Delivery Speed:  Improving how quickly products are delivered to customers. Increased Selection:  Expanding the range of products available to as many cities as possible. On a normal day, I usually have 2 to 3 meetings to track project progress and discuss ways to improve results, work on prioritization (deciding which projects to prioritize based on their potential impact), and create automation mechanisms to be more efficient. #2: Why Amazon? First, because of the tangible Impact: The work offers a lot of visibility, and you can see the impact of your efforts (you just need to go to Amazon website). This is very different from my previous roles in banking. Second, high responsibility; the company demands a lot from each of us. Finally, the learning curve: There was a steep learning curve, particularly around creating scalable, automatable, and auditable solutions or mechanisms. I had done similar work before, but this role provided a more defined and structured process, bringing a sense of order to the work. "Everything is measured in a predictable way". #3: What defines the culture at Amazon? The company's culture is heavily defined by its Leadership Principles . These principles are not just a set of guidelines; they are actively used to drive decisions and day-to-day work. In meetings, employees often justify their ideas by arguing that a specific action aligns with one of the principles. Customer Obsession is possibly the most important principle. However, the specific principles each employee uses vary depending on the role. For example, analytical roles focus more on principles like Deep Dive, Think Big, and Deliver Results. At the beginning of the recruitment process, my hiring manager highlighted the most important principles for the role I was applying to, so I could better prepare for those. If they do not tell you in advance, you can ask to the recruiter or hiring manager. #4: How was your recruitment process? First, I submitted an application with my resume. Then, I had a quick screening call with basic questions such as openness to work at the office and salary expectations. After this, they sent me material to help prepare the interviews. There was a PDF explaining what each principle was about. I am not sure if every recruiter sends this material; but if not, it is a good idea to ask for it. Regardless, there are many videos on YouTube with explanations of each. The rest of the process depends on the role you are interviewing for. For technical roles, for example, you can have SQL practical tests. Since my position was senior, I had an exam about situations and t he answers need to be focused on the principles. For example: You arrive at work, and a colleague is sick, so he asks if you can take over his work. Doing that would delay your deliverables. What do you do? One answer could leverage the principle of ownership, or another the principle of obsession. Then I had several rounds of behavioral interviews (" tell me about a situation when you..." ). The focus is 100% on behavioral questions. That said, it´s common that they often break the ice with " tell me about your resume " or "anything you want to share that it isn't in your resume? ". Each story takes in total 10-15 min. Each interview is 45 min. # 5: How did you prepare the behavioral questions? Before the interview : Story Bank:  I prepared around 25 stories. I had a core of 8-10 stories and then made small twists, so that they could fit different principles. It's crucial to know which story matches which principle. The recruiter told me to prepare only 5 stories, but I don't recommend that. It's not ideal to repeat stories, and if you have 5 interviews with 3 questions each, you'll need enough unique content. The number of stories can also depend on seniority; a junior person might not have 20 stories. Recency and Relevance:  The time or year of the story doesn't matter as much, but I focused on recent experiences (last 2-5 years) because they were fresher in my mind and easier to recall. I also focused on the roles that were most relevant to the new position. During the interview: Speaking: The interview can feel like a monologue because you have to tell a story, but interviewers can interrupt to ask questions. My recommendation is to follow these steps: Start by giving a summary of the story (20-30 seconds), and then begin. Use phrases that help explain where you are in the STAR  framework (e.g., "It was X year, I had Y role, and I was at Z company"). Use phrases like, "What was it that I did?" to transition from Task  to Action . Ensure the interviewer understands the context . I would ask, "Are you familiar with this company?" if it wasn't well-known. This way, I didn't waste time providing unnecessary context, but I was sure they understood. Credibility:  It's common for people to exaggerate their experience, but make sure your story and numbers are realistic . If the numbers don't add up or seem unreasonable for the context, an interviewer will know. Data-Driven Results:  Results should always be data-driven . There can be exceptions (e.g., leadership stories) but the majority must have metrics. Even if it's not a measurable 20% increase, you can still talk about metrics like NPS (Net Promoter Score). Handling Interruptions:  If they don't understand something, they will interrupt. For example, they might ask, " And what was your role? " or " Did you decide that on your own?" It's important to answer the question directly without losing focus, and then continue with your story. Language Skills:  They will test your English level. So, be ready.